Historical+Overview+of+Leadership+Concepts+in+the+Military

Historical Overview of Leadership Concepts in the Military

 GREGORY BECK Kansas State University  Adult EDACE 937 6/13/2010      Annotated Bibliography/References for Ed History/Introduction = = Brewer, T.L. (1975). The impact of advanced education on American military officers. In Armed Forces and Society, Vol.2, No 1. (pp.63-80).This academic research article demonstrated that there was little difference between programs (military (senior) war college vs. civilian vs navy CGSC)in changing attitudes (tested for nuclear arms reduction treaties) indicating that military and civilian administered programs have about the same impact, though a civilian taught program has a (just) slightly greater tendency to provide a pragmatic vice absolutist (more open) view. Caforio, G. (2003). Chapter 2, Some historical notes. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 7-26. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.Excellent overview of history of military sociological theory and noted theorists in the field with particular emphasis of professional military theorists Samuel Huntington, Morris Janowitz, Erving Goffman, Charles Moskos, Jr. and Jacques Van Doorn. Caforio, G. (2003). Chapter 15, Military officer education. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 255-278. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. This chapter highlights initial entry (academy) professional military education and provides insights to common qualities traits to the first rung (undergraduate) of military education of junior officers. This sets the stage for later military officer education. Carafano, J. (2009). //20 years later: professional military education.// In Heritage Foundation testimony on national security and defense.This analysis opines the requirements for PME to be included in the 2010 QDR and comments on the outdated and haphazard/ad hoc approach the services are taking to officer PME. He basically affirms that PME is largely the same model used during the Cold War tied to personnel gates and promotions. He advocates for much earlier education, conducted in civilian graduate programs(mostly) and in diverse focus areas rather tham broad education as currently provided (and late in officer’s careers).  Carney, M.K. (1999). //Joint professional military education1999: where to now?// SAMS monograph examined the evolution of joint education at the US Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, from the days before the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 to today (1999). Analysis led to recommendations to improve joint education at the intermediate Service school level throughout the Armed Forces.Analysis indicated that the US Army Command and General Staff College was meeting, and oftentimes, exceeding the minimum requirements for joint education as dictated by law and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff policy. The author proposes changes to the officer education architecture to increase the number of officers fully educated in joint matters and to improve the quality of joint education. Recommendations include: a unified intermediate Service school curriculum throughout all the Service colleges, an even mix of Service representation in both student staff groups and faculty at all schools, and the changing of the intermediate Service school focus from a Service-oriented education with some joint education to a joint education with some Service education. Appendix A provides a brief overview of historical military education milestones. Coumbe, A.T. (2010). Dandeker, C. (2003). Chapter 23, Building flexible forces fro the 21st century: key challenges for the contemporary armed services. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 405-416. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. This chapter provides insights to new types of knowledge and education military officers will need/are getting now.

Holder, Jr., L.D. & Murray, W. (1998). Prospects for military education. In Joint Forces Quarterly, Spring 1998, (pp. 81-90.) This article is a far-reaching critique of 1990’s style military joint and service PME focused at the mid to high level. Has many good recomndations for improvement coming at the heels of the Skelton report and prior to ILE implementation which in many ways went the opposite direction from that recommended in this article. Kummel, G. (2003). Chapter 24, A soldier is a soldier!? The military and its soldiers in an era of globalization. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 417-436. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. This chapter explores how military and officers may have to adapt their education to account for the challenges entailed with globalization. Manigart, P. (2003). Chapter 19, Restructuring of the armed forces. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 323-344. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. This chapter highlights changes to modern militaries which lead to changes in military education. McKinley, M.R. (2005). //An assessment of the army officer education system from an adult learning perspective.// SAMS monograph examines the Officer Education System as a sub-set of Army education to determine how well OES is responding to the call for critical thinkers and life long learners and to examine some underlying assumptions upon which OES rests. This study focuses on the Officer Basic Course, the Captains Career Course, and Intermediate Level Education for analysis as representatives for the entire OES. In addition to these programs, the study also addresses the Army’s concept of self-development training as a pillar of the education system. Each of these programs and concepts then serve as models for analysis from adult learning strategies. The study reveals an education system that is slowly adopting methods for incorporating critical thinking instruction into its programs. The most significant findings in this study are in the areas of life long learning and self-directed learning, revealing that the programs in OES are doing little to nothing in fostering self-direction in its officers that allows them to continue learning outside of formal settings. These findings indicate a need for further research about levels of self-directed learning among Army officers but also demand an end to the myth that officers are inherently self-directed. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The army and team learning //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">.SAMS monograph examining whether Army is using team learning effectively. This monograph looks to assess the extent to which the U.S. Army fosters team learning, particularly in battalion and brigade-level units. The monograph also analyzes a means of assessing the health of team learning in the Army through a consideration of those publishing in selected military journals. The overall assessment of the monograph is that while the avenues are in place for the Army to foster team learning at the battalion and brigade-levels, those avenues are not being adequately exploited to develop and encourage junior officers. The recommendation is that battalion and brigade commanders reconsider the types of OPDs conducted and the methods used to conduct them. Additionally, military professional journals must reengage junior officers to increase their article and letter contributions to the journals. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 10pt; letter-spacing: 0pt;"> Nuciari, M. (2003). Chapter 16, Women in the military: sociological arguments for integration. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 279-298. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. This chapter provides insights to the impact of women on the military and possible military education insights. It may have implications to the integration of women to the US Army @ 1974. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Norris, J.G. (2008). //Is professional military education preparing BCT commanders for command in the 21st century?// SAMS monograph examining PME and the changing nature of war, the increased strategic role and competencies resulting from the modularized BCT. It states that PME is providing instruction to support the new requirements of the BCT commanders although PME is addressing the strategic competencies, the increased mission requirements on the force and senior leaders is taking priority over professional military education and accepting risk by subordinating BCT commander PME. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">US Army. (1975). //Education of US army officers, volume II –final report TRADOC OPMS task group.// Report describing the desired changes and purpose of Army education in 1975 (post Vietnam and getting ready for the Airland Battle (offensive) doctrine of the 1980’s. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">US Army. (2010). //The united states army learning concept for 2015.// This draft provides insight as to the direction the US army wants its soldiers and education system to take in the immediate future and impacting on how it will organize its schools to accomplish that. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">US Department of Education, (2010). //Transforming American education: learning powered by technology.// This document provides insights to civilian educational goals of the past and the goal for the immediate future which can be compared to US Army education goals and history for comparative purposes. US Government Accountability Office. (2008). Defense management: preliminary observations on DoD’s plans for developing language and cultural awareness capabilities, GAO-09-176R.This report provides insights to 2008 educational desires and goals for the US military education system to achieve. It demonstrates the changing role of miloitary missions impinging on what soldiers and officers need to know and learn. Von Bredow, W. (2003). Chapter 5, The order of violence. In G. Caforio, //Handbook of the sociology of the military// (pp. 87-98. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. This chapter provides insights as to why militaries exist (in democracies) and the relative spectrum of those capabilities. Wardynski, C., Lyle, D.S. and Colarusso, M.J. (2010). //Towards a u.s. army officer corps strategy for success: developing talent.// In Officer Corps Strategy Series. Strategic Series Institute, Army War College, Carlisle barracks, PA.This study report looks at officer (educational) development principally after 1980 timeframe to the present time and describes what officer development (and education) should incorporate/look like.  Yaeger, J.W. (2005). The origins of joint professional military education. In Joint Forces Quarterly, issue 37. (pp. 74-82.)This article describes the early establishment of joint military education history and rationale from the early 20th century centered around the Industrial College of the Armed Forces through post WW2 desires when establishing the Department of Defense. GEN Eisenhower was a key proponent. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The following list of sources will be included for historical overview and sourcing.They are available through the Combined Arms Research Library (CARL).   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">   <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">[|History of Army Officer Education]     Looking for digital resources while the Archive and Documents Departments are closed?

[|The History of Army Officer Education, a bibliography by the CARL Reference Staff.]  Major Army Studies -- The Following studies are in chronological order. When possible, full text links are provided. Many of the links are to large files.

Report of War Department Military Education Board on Educational System for Officers of the Army (Gerow Board) -- []

Report of the Department of the Army Board on Educational System for Officers (Eddy Board) -- []

Report of the Department of the Army Officer Education and Training Review Board (Williams Board). Low quality scan from DTIC -- [] High quality scan from MHI -- currently unavailable.

Report of the Department of the Army Board to Review of Army Officer Schools (Haines Board). Volume 1. Summary and Recommendations (1966)-- [] Volume 2. Description of Current Educational and Training Systems (1966)-- [] Volume 3. Analysis of Current Army System of Officer Schooling (1966)-- [] Volume 4. Glossary, Index, Distribution (1966)-- [] Record of Completed Actions (1970)-- []

Review of Army Officer Education Systems (Norris Review)(Vols 1-3 with all annexes) (1971) -- []

Leadership for the 1970's (Army War College). Leadership for the 1970's (July, 1971) -- [] Leadership for the 1970's (October, 1971) -- [] Leadership for the 1970's. Consolidated Army War College Leadership Monograph Series 1 - 5 (1975) -- []

- Review of Education and Training for Officers (RETO or Harrison Board). Volume 1. An Overview (1978) -- [] Volume 2. Career Progression (1978) -- [] Volume 3. The Data Base (1978) -- [] Volume 4. Rank- Independent Issue (1978) -- [] Volume 5. Special Groups (1978) -- []

Professional Development of Officers Study (PDOS). Volume 1: February 1985 (1985) -- [] Volume 2: Implementation Plan (1985) -- [] Volume 3: Systems Wide Issues (1985) -- [] Volume 4: Development Periods (1985) -- [] Volume 5: Policy Impact Analysis (1985) -- [] Volume 6: Survey (1985) -- [] Total Warrant Officer System (TWOS). Volume 1 (1985) -- [] Gender Analysis of the Professional Development of Officers Study (PDOS) Survey, Army Research Institute. (1985) -- []

Leader Development Study (MG Gordon R. Sullivan). Leader Development Study (1987) -- ADB310149 Leader Development Action Plan (1988) -- ADB154351

Report of the United States Army Command and General Staff College 1984-85 Institutional Self-Study. CGSC Institutional Self-Study (1985) -- []

Officer Personnel Management System XXI Task Force (OPMS XXI). OPMS XXI Final Report (1997) -- currently unavailable.

The Army Training and Leader Development Panel Report (ATLDP). ATLDP Report (NCO) (2002) -- [] ATLDP Phase III: Warrant Officer Study (2002) -- [] ATLDP Officer Study Report (2003) -- [] ATLDP Phase IV: Civilian Study (2003) -- []

Leadership Lessons at Division Command Level - 2004 (Army War College, Ulmer Report) -- []

USACGSC Self-Study Report Submitted to the Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Primary intent: Provide a brief history of Army education. Show the “why” of Army education as well as the historical “how” Army education has been carried out since WW2 till the present. This will be supported by historical studies and reports available stating the intent including the Gerow, Eddy, Williams, Haines, Norris, RETO, PDOS, Leader Development, and OPMS reports. Sociological studies and the impact of social changes and political dictates will also provide context for the historical overview. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Premise?: As the American military is representative of the society it supports and defends, so too is American military education (as opposed to training specific) representative or reflective of the techniques and perceived needs of the underlying American educational approach. The US military education system is shaped in response to perceived enemies, and the underlying social, economic, and technological goals of the larger society. Through the decades, the historical basis of education in the military roughly mirrors that of American education systems. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 11.5pt;">Soldiers are not in the Army. Soldiers are the Army.” // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">They are shaped by society and in turn shape society and so have both internal and external influences that… <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Officers within the Army/military exist to/are expected to… they represent the primary study (and will be the primary beneficiaries of this study.Officer development is an integrated system commencing from pre-commissioning sources through to the end of their careers-some at general officer or national level.   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Famed military theorist Clausewitz says that war is an extension of politics by other means. Particularly in a democratic nation-state like the United States, the military is an extension of the society with its mission to preserve and defend that society. And politics has a lot to do with how education is both valued in the military as well in how it is conducted. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“The relevance of democratic control for established democracies is not so much the fear of a coup d’etat, but the alignment of the goals of the political and military leaders.” (p.154, Carforio, chap9, Hans Born) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">While the military is an extension of society and shares many of that societies underlying characteristics and values, as a profession the military is also a subset of that society and is distinct from it. So too is the nature of adult education within the military. It both takes and shares education <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Nowhere is this more true than in the military’s officer corps which acts as the vanguard of the profession and acts as it’s guardian as well as its gatekeeper. But education in the all-volunteer, professional military is valued and is extending its reach down thru the warrant officer as well as the non-commissioned officer and into the junior enlisted ranks as a valued commodity. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Outline topics:(Economic, technology, culture (social), geo-political) >> mission>> military organization structure <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Socialogical aspects: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Outline:Profession/leadership, martialness, rank (warrior ethos)/adventure/skillvs organization/corporateness/bureaucracy/management/hierarchy; <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">internal vs external, divergent vs convergent <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">corporateness <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Social/political influences: Integration (race), <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Chronological aspects: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Pre-WW2: Small Army/military, depression (little money to train), education valued, understand technology and roles it plays, industrilaization <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">WW2: world view, education curtailed, adapt quickly (or die), maturation of industrial processes and technologies, a-bomb, radar//large classrooms/lecture <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Post WW2: and DoD establishment, conscription, world view, GI-bill, demobilization (education not valued over experience in military, smaller army, nukes, deterrence, cold war.   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Nuclear age: centralization (post WW2 officers with little education but large experience (WW2), rise on ORSA and math/science/engineering skills/space race <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Vietnam/70’sTRADOC//Dupuy and OPMS, Volar, Women, less money focus on technical skills <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Reagan era//Goldwater Nichols, age of computers//ALB <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Skelton report// <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">2000-ILE universal education multi-national// small classrooms <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Selected quotes from Caforio… <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Noted German military sociologist Gerhard Kuemmel writes: “The reason for trans-/interdisciplinarity lies in the simple truth that the military is a highly complex social phenomenon in itself and one that cuts through various levels, touches several different contexts, and is thus subject to multiple processes of interpenetration” (p.3) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Women in the military… <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“At the high end of threat to the society, women’s military roles seem to increase (…) In societies with low threats to national security, but with cultural values supporting gender equality, women’s military participation also increases (…) the extent of women’s participation in combat jobs will be minimized when there is a medium threat…defined as the situation in which society is not threatened with imminent extinction or invasion by superior military forces, but there is a moderate to high probability of military action on its soil in the near future… The greater the relative importance of actual warfighting (especially ground combat), the less the participation of women. (M. Segal, 1995, pp761-762 as quoted in Carforio, Chap 16, p.282) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Janowitz’s civilianization process: “With civilianization many technical roles are assimilated to roles in big civilian corporations, there is an increase of highly bureaucratic roles and of scientific-technological and managerial content roles as well; the organizational structure becomes similar to that of a civilian administration, and the professional practice, expected to remain essentially peaceful, removes the perception of activities in the military as intrinsically combat activities… Women, in fact, are already accepted in parallel roles within civilian society.” (Mariano Nuciari in Carforio, Chap 16, p.283) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“To conclude this point, we can affirm that the entry of women in Western and Western-like armed forces is a consequence of the process of civilianization on the one side and of the parallel and progressive change in value sets defining gender ascriptive characteristics… Furthermore, women’s entry in the armed forces widens with the decline of the draft system and the prevailing tendency to rely on voluntary-based armed forces. (Mariano Nuciari in Carforio, Chap 16, p.284) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“Because military organizations are open-ended systems (i.e., they are in constant interdependence and exchanges with their environment), it follows that different types of military organizations correspond to different types of societies (Feld, 1977 in Philippe Manigart, Chap 19 in Carforio, p.323). In advanced industrial societies, the end of the Cold War, technological change, and social-cultural evolution have brought about the end of the mass army. With the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and of the Soviet Union itself, the Western armies’ missions have also changed. They are no longer to deter a known adversary, but to intervene, with other actors, in the new kinds of conflicts, i.e., maintaining or enforcing peace in regoions where our interests are in jeopardy, fighting international terrorism and other threats, and/or carrying out humanitarian missions. In the context of these new engagement scenarios, political and military logic calls for quick reaction capability of what Janowitz (1971) called “constabulary” forces. These kinds of forces are smaller and more professional. This conglomerate of structural factors pushes the decline of the mass army to its critical point.” (p.323) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Economic: “Western economies are experiencing what some call the third industrial revolution (information technology)...At the same time, the economy is becoming global.” (p.324) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Transnational vs multinational: “… a multinational firm is an organization that has operations in more than one country but whose major business decisions are made at the headquarters., while atransnational structure refers to an organization that also has operations in more than one country and whose major business decisions are made throughout the world.” (p325)… In other words, it is likely that one will see the same evolution as in the private sector, i.e., the proliferation of joint ventures, strategic alliances, and so on. (p.325) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Tecxhnology: Modern armies are organizations using very complex technologies (weapon systems, etc.). In fact, at the close of the 20th century, the sheer critical mass of technological novelties, as part of the “third industrial wave” …had allowed some observers(Snow, 1991; Toffler and Toffler, 1993) to speak of a “revolution in military affairs” (RMA). Though designed to be user-friendly …these new high-tech weapons also generate new layers of complexity for those in charge…as well as a greater need for educational sophistication and training among (at least) commissioned and noncommissioned officers. This has two consequences: On the one hand, one needs more and more highly trained personnel, with a higher educational level…On the other hand, the training of these specialists is long and costly. In order to make this training cost effective, personnel must remain in place for a minimum period of time. From this follows the fact that, in all Western military organizations, the role of draftees has been marginalized to the point that in some countries, the draft has been ended or suspended.” (p.325) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Machine gun: “Civilians made these inventions, not army technicians. The military in general was not supportive of this kind of modernization and technology. The second half of the 19th century was an era of invention, mass production, and technological progress, but in the military the idea lingered that wars were decided by courageous individuals who were motivated by patriotism, honor, and heroism…This dominant way of thinking also was a protest against the modernization of society. Especially officers stuck to a worldview that was predominantly preindustrial…The simple idea that increased firepower could be decisive in modern warfare fell on barren grounds. (Rene Moelker in Carforio, Chap 22, p.390) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“The necessary changes in the organization could only be brought about by political labor of advocates of the new technology.” (p.392) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Technological determinism masks the role of economic factors in the introduction of new technologies. Economic factors are inherent in the idea of military competition… The basic idea is to economically exhaust the opponent. The Cold War is an example of this principle: the Soviet Union was economically exhausted by the arms race.(p.392) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“The three waves are the agricultural revolution, the industrial revolution, and the information revolution. Factors of production in these waves are “earth/soil,” “capital,” and “knowledge.” Warfare in the first wave is characterized by seasonal labor performed by mercenaries. In the second wave mass armies enter the scene. In the third wave small volunteer armies replace mass armies. Warfare is a land-air war with surgical interventions and growing importance of information specialists. In information wars personnel behind computer screens many thousands of miles away from the theater of war may be decisive in the outcomes of the battle.” (p.Warfare in the first wave is characterized by seasonal labor performed by mercenaries. In the second wave mass armies enter the scene. In the third wave small volunteer armies replace mass armies. Warfare is a land-air war with surgical interventions and growing importance of information specialists. In information wars personnel behind computer screens many thousands of miles away from the theater of war may be decisive in the outcomes of the battle.” (p.392-393)  <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“By the term “flexible forces” it has been normal to refer to armed services as follows: such forces are equippd with the appropriate hardware, force structures, and people policies that will enable states to respond swiftly, in collaboration with allies and/or friends bonded in “coalititions of the willing,” to a wide variety of crises whose nature it is quite difficult to predict in advance.Consequently, the military response to such crises will increasinglyhave to be configured in packets of force, drawing on a range of military elements to meet the particular needs of a specific crisis in ways that echo the long-standing distinction made in the world of business between mass and customized production.(Christopher Dandeker in Caforio, chap 23, p.406) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“Force packaging involves the participation of elements from all three services. It is in this context that one can refer to the increasing importance of “joitery.” The increased focus on interservice integration-what can be called the “purple trend” –has implications for the expertise and education required for personnel at different points in the military hierarchy. In addition, interservice integration involves units drawn from the armed services of different countries, posing additional issues of “cultural interoperability”: how to ensure effective cooperation among different national traditions…Preparing military professionals for these complex roles…requires innovation in education and organization. (p.414-415)… We may thus conclude that throughout the new flexible forces, and at each of their rank levels, the need for intelligent soldiers is likely to increase rather than diminish. (p.416) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">“As Bernard Brodie elegantly put it as early as 1945, the onset of the nuclear age meant a shift within the profile of military action from the purpose of winning wars to the objective of averting wars (Brodie, 1946, p.76). Nuclear deterrence, massive retaliation, mutually assured destruction, and the “balance of terror,”…became the hallmark of the military. Initially, resources were shifted into this new technological field to the detriment of the conventional forces…threat perceptions changed somewhat because increased attention was paid to a scenario in which…the Soviet Union, would launch a nonnuclear attack on Western Europe…As a result, there was a strategic shift to “FlexibleResponse” and a renewed interest in the build-up of conventional capabilities… For the people within the military…the shift to deterrence was not easily accomplished given the soldiers’ “extreme dedication to the idea of winning, to the notion of victory for its own sake” (Brodie,1974, p.492). In this regard, Brodie discusses the contents and the importance of military training by pointing out “that the whole training of the military is toward a set of values that find in battle and in victory a vindication. The skills developed in the soldier are those of a fighter, and not of the reflector on ultimate purposes” (Brodie, 1974, p.492) The shift in the military was notable and implied that “the profession serves society by maintaining its strength, expertise and effectiveness at such a standard as to deter permanently, potential enemies from contemplating embarking upon war, either conventional or nuclear” (Downes, 1985, p.156) … the soldiers turned from “warriors to managers” and technicians. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">(p.422) 4 types of war: Total war (war of annihilatuion, genocide); wars of pacification (waged to conquer colonies/colonial rule; Trinitarian war (states, armed forces, society/population w/popular sentiment/support; low intensity war (small wars, insurgency, civil warspartisan, guerilla etc.)distinctions are blurred (can lead to totalization od war). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> ==
 * CGSC Self-Study (2005) -- currently unavailable
 * CGSC Self-Study (2008) -- currently unavailable

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